Practical and proven approaches in leadership and supervision

Practical and proven approaches in leadership and supervision

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Type of Project	ESSAY
Writer Level	PHD VERIFIED
Format	APA
Academic Sources	10
Page Count	3-12 PAGES

Instructions/Descriptions

 

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Required Resources Comment by Washburn Kelly: All the required reading material are in the document below please scroll down to view. Please do not click on the link

Text

Northouse, P. G. (2018).  Leadership: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu

• Chapter 14: Team Leadership

Oedekoven, O. O., Lavrenz, J., & Robbins, D. (2018).  Leadership essentials: Practical and proven approaches in leadership and supervision . Retrieved from https://ashford.instructure.com

• Chapter 2: Teams, Teamwork, and Leadership Styles

Link to Dr. King Speech I’ve Been to the Mountaintop (Links to an external site.). Comment by Washburn Kelly: Link to Dr Kings speech

Instruction

Prior to beginning work on this discussion, watch or listen to Dr. King’s last speech of his life,  I’ve Been to the Mountaintop (Links to an external site.).

During the speech, Dr. King addressed an action that could impact several businesses, the local economy, and the direction of the nation. Explain how the speech reflects on leading through hard times while providing a defining vision for followers. Comment by Washburn Kelly: These are the question that needs to be addressed. Please answer each question that are being asked in the instruction.

What were the conditions at the time impacting his leadership ability?

What direction could current leaders take from the speech concerning addressing the present and the future success of a strategy, movement, or vision, or the success of an organization?

READING MATERIAL

Leadership: Theory and practice Comment by Washburn Kelly: First Reading Material

14.1 Description

Work teams are very prevalent in today’s organizations. The reliance on teams is due partially to increasingly complex tasks, moreglobalization, and the flattening of organizational structures. A team is a type of organizational group that is composed of members who areinterdependent, who share common goals, and who must coordinate their activities to accomplish these goals. Team members must workcollectively to achieve their goals. Examples of organizational teams include senior executive teams, project management teams, task forces,work units, standing committees, quality teams, and improvement teams. Teams can be located in the same place meeting face-to-face, orthey can be geographically dispersed “virtual” teams meeting across time and distance via various forms of communication technology.Teams can also be hybrids of face-to-face and virtual teams with some members being co-located and some being dispersed. The exactdefinition of which organizational group is a team or not is constantly evolving as organizations confront the many new forms ofcontemporary collaboration (Wageman, Gardner, & Mortensen, 2012).

The study of organizational teams has focused on strategies for maintaining a competitive advantage. Team-based organizations have fasterresponse capability because of their flatter organizational structures, which rely on teams and new technology to enable communicationacross time and space (Porter & Beyerlein, 2000). These newer organizational structures have been referred to as “team-based andtechnology-enabled” (Mankin, Cohen, & Bikson, 1996). A majority of multinational companies are depending on virtual teams, or teams thatare geographically dispersed and rely on technology to interact and collaborate (Muethel, Gehrlein, & Hoegl, 2012). Such teams allowcompanies to (1) use the best talent across the globe, (2) facilitate collaboration across time and space, and (3) reduce travel costs (Paul,Drake, & Liang, 2016). These virtual teams face more difficulty with members separated by time, distance, and culture. They often have lesstrust, more conflict, and more subgroup formation. In virtual teams, face-to-face communication is rare, with decisions and schedulingtaking more time. With the development of social media, new communication technologies, and software applications for meetingmanagement, virtual teams have richer and more realistic communication environments where collaboration is facilitated (Schmidt, 2014;Schouten, van den Hooff, & Feldberg, 2016; Scott, 2013).

The organizational team-based structure is an important way for organizations to remain competitive by responding quickly and adaptingto constant, rapid changes. Studies of both face-to-face and virtual teams have increasingly become focused on team processes and teamoutcomes (Ilgen, Hollenbeck, Johnson, & Jundt, 2005; Thomas, Martin, & Riggio, 2013). Also, researchers focused on the problems workteams confront as well as how to make these work teams more effective (Ilgen, Major, Hollenbeck, & Sego, 1993). Effective organizationalteams lead to many desirable outcomes, such as

• greater productivity,
• more effective use of resources,
• better decisions and problem solving,
• better-quality products and services, and
• greater innovation and creativity (Parker, 1990).

However, for teams to be successful, the organizational culture needs to support member involvement. The traditional authority structureof many organizations does not support decision making at lower levels, and this can lead to the failure of many teams. Teamwork is anexample of lateral decision making as opposed to the traditional vertical decision making that occurs in the organizational hierarchy basedon rank or position in the organization. The dynamic and fluid power shifting in teams has been referred to as heterarchy (Aime, Humphrey,DeRue, & Paul, 2014). Such power shifting within teams can lead to positive outcomes as long as team members see these shifting sourcesof power as legitimate. Teams will have great difficulty in organizational cultures that are not supportive of such collaborative work anddecision making. Changing an organizational culture to one that is more supportive of teams is possible, but it takes time and effort (Levi,2011).

Leadership of teams has also become an important area of study. The ideas of “team leadership” are quite different from leadership withinthe organizational vertical structure. Many theories of leadership, such as situational (discussed in Chapter 5) and transformational(discussed in Chapter 8), can be applied in the team setting. However, team leadership is a unique setting for leadership, and it is veryprocess oriented. How do teams develop their “critical capabilities”? How do team leaders shift their actions over time to deal withcontingencies as they arise? How do leader actions promote task and interpersonal development (Kozlowski, Watola, Jensen, Kim, & Botero,2009)? Effective team leadership facilitates team success and helps teams to avoid team failure (Stagl, Salas, & Burke, 2007; Stewart & Manz,1995). Effective leadership processes are the most critical factor in team success (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001, p. 452).

Shared or Distributed Leadership:

The complexities of team processes demand the attention and focus of all members of the team. Some teams are autonomous and self-directed with no formal leader. But even those with a formal leader will benefit from shared leadership among team members. Teamleadership functions can be performed by the formal team leader and/or shared by team members. Shared team leadership occurs whenmembers of the team take on leadership behaviors to influence the team and to maximize team effectiveness (Bergman, Rentsch, Small,Davenport, & Bergman, 2012). Shared leadership has been referred to as team leadership capacity, encompassing the leadership repertoireof the entire team (Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004). Such distributed leadership involves the sharing of influence by team members. Teammembers step forward when situations warrant, providing the leadership necessary, and then step back to allow others to lead. Suchshared leadership has become more and more important in today’s organizations to allow faster responses to more complex issues(Morgeson, DeRue, & Karam, 2010; Pearce, Manz, & Sims, 2009; Solansky, 2008).

Shared leadership, while very important, does involve risk and takes some courage for the member who steps forward to provideleadership outside the formal role of team leader (Amos & Klimoski, 2014). Risks aside, teams with shared leadership have less conflict,more consensus, more trust, and more cohesion than teams that do not have shared leadership (Bergman et al., 2012). Shared leadershipis even more important for virtual teams. Empowering leadership that shares power with virtual team members promotes both effectivecollaboration and performance (Drescher & Garbers, 2016; Hill & Bartol, 2016). Virtual teams are simply more effective when there isshared team leadership (Hoch & Kozlowski, 2014; Muethel et al., 2012; Wang, Waldman, & Zhang, 2014). How leaders and members canshare the leadership of teams so that these teams can truly become effective and achieve excellence is discussed in this chapter. Itintroduces a model that provides a mental road map to help the leader or any team member providing leadership diagnose team problemsand take appropriate action to correct those problems.

Team Leadership Model

The Hill Model for Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) is based on the functional leadership claim that the leader’s job is to monitor the teamand then take whatever action is necessary to ensure team effectiveness. The model provides a tool for understanding the very complexphenomenon of team leadership, starting at the top with its initial leadership decisions, moving to leader actions, and finally focusing on theindicators of team effectiveness. In addition, the model suggests specific actions that leaders can perform to improve team effectiveness.Effective team leaders need a wide repertoire of communication skills to monitor and take appropriate action. The model is designed tosimplify and clarify the complex nature of team leadership and to provide an easy tool to aid leadership decision making for team leadersand members alike.

Effective team performance begins with how the leader sees the situation that the team is experiencing (the leader’s mental model). Thismental model reflects not only the components of the problem confronting the team, but also the environmental and organizationalcontingencies that define the larger context of team action. The leader develops a mental conception of what the team problem is and whatsolutions are possible in this context, given the environmental and organizational constraints and resources (Zaccaro et al., 2001).

To respond appropriately to the problem envisioned in the mental model, a good team leader needs to be behaviorally flexible and have awide repertoire of actions or skills to meet the team’s diverse needs (Barge, 1996). When his or her behavior matches the complexity of thesituation, the leader is behaving with “requisite variety,” or the set of behaviors necessary to meet the team’s needs (Drecksel, 1991).Effective team leaders are able to construct accurate mental models of the team’s problems by observing team functioning, and can takerequisite action to solve these problems. Effective team leaders can diagnose correctly and choose the right action.

Figure 14.1 The Hill Model for Team Leadership

The leader has special responsibility for functioning in a manner that will help the team achieve effectiveness. Within this perspective,leadership behavior is seen as team-based problem solving, in which the leader attempts to achieve team goals by analyzing the internaland external situation and then selecting and implementing the appropriate behaviors to ensure team effectiveness (Fleishman et al., 1991).Leaders must use discretion about which problems need intervention, and make choices about which solutions are the most appropriate(Zaccaro et al., 2001). The appropriate solution varies by circumstance and focuses on what should be done to make the team moreeffective. Effective leaders have the ability to determine what leadership interventions are needed, if any, to solve team problems. Whenleadership is shared throughout the team, various members are diagnosing problems and intervening with appropriate behaviors. Themonitoring and selection of behaviors is shared throughout the team membership. Given the complexity of team functioning, such sharedleadership can—and, in fact, does—lead to greater team effectiveness.

Team Effectiveness

At the bottom of the Hill Model for Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) is “Team Effectiveness,” which focuses on team excellence or the desiredoutcomes of teamwork. Two critical functions of team effectiveness are performance (task accomplishment) and development (teammaintenance). Performance refers to the quality of the outcomes of the team’s work. Did the team accomplish its goals and objectives in aquality manner? Development refers to the cohesiveness of the team and the ability of team members to satisfy their own needs whileworking effectively with other team members (Nadler, 1998). Excellent teams accomplish both of these objectives: getting the job done andmaintaining a cohesive team.

Scholars have systematically studied organizational work teams and developed standards of effectiveness or criteria of excellence that canbe used to assess a team’s health (Hackman, 1990, 2002, 2012; Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 1993; Katzenbach & Smith, 2008; LaFasto &Larson, 2001; Larson & LaFasto, 1989; Lencioni, 2005; Zaccaro et al., 2001). Hackman (2012) has posited six enabling conditions that leadto effective team functioning: (1) Is it a real team? (2) Does it have a compelling purpose? (3) Does it have the right people? (4) Are thenorms of conduct clear? (5) Is there support from the organizational context? (6) Is there team-focused coaching? Larson and LaFasto(1989) studied successful teams and found that, regardless of the type of team, eight characteristics were consistently associated with teamexcellence. Table 14.1 demonstrates the similarity of these excellence characteristics to the enabling conditions suggested by Hackman(2012).

It is helpful if team leaders understand the conditions that contribute to or enable team excellence. Such understanding will allow the leaderto benchmark or compare his or her team’s performance to these standards and to determine possible areas of team weakness orineffectiveness. Assessing how well the team compares to these established indicators of team success provides a valuable source ofinformation to guide the leader to take appropriate actions to improve team success.

1. Clear, Elevating Goal.

“A compelling purpose energizes team members, orients them toward their collective objective, and fully engages their talents” (Hackman,2012, p. 437). Team goals must be very clear so that one can tell whether the performance objective has been realized. Teams sometimesfail because they are given a vague task and then asked to work out the details (Hackman, 1990). In addition, the team goal must beinvolving or motivating so that the members believe it to be worthwhile and important. Teams often fail because they let something elsereplace their goal, such as personal agendas or power issues (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). Research data from numerous teams show thateffective leaders keep the team focused on the goal (LaFasto & Larson, 2001).

2. Results-Driven Structure.

Teams need to find the best structure for accomplishing their goals. Structural features that lead to effective teamwork include task design,team composition, and core norms of conduct (Wageman, Fisher, & Hackman, 2009). Top management teams typically deal with power andinfluence, task forces deal with ideas and plans, customer service teams deal with clients, and production teams deal with technology(Hackman, 1990). Problem resolution teams such as task forces need a structure that emphasizes trust so that all will be willing and able tocontribute. Creative teams such as advertising teams need to emphasize autonomy so that all can take risks and be free from unduecensorship. Tactical teams such as emergency room teams need to emphasize clarity so that everyone knows what to do and when. Inaddition, all teams need clear roles for team members, a good communication system, methods of assessing individual performance, and anemphasis on fact-based judgments (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). Appropriate structures enable teams to meet their needs while stillaccomplishing team goals.

3. Competent Team Members.

Teams should be composed of the right number and mix of members to accomplish all the tasks of the team. In addition, members needsufficient information, education, and training to become or remain competent team members (Hackman & Walton, 1986). As a whole, theindividual team members need to possess the requisite technical competence to accomplish the team’s goals. Members also need to bepersonally competent in interpersonal and teamwork skills. A common mistake in forming teams is to assume that people who have all thetechnical skills necessary to solve a problem also have the interpersonal skills necessary to collaborate effectively (Hackman, 1990). Justbecause someone is a good engineer or doctor does not mean he or she has the interpersonal skills to function on a team. Team membersneed certain core competencies that include the ability to do the job and the ability to solve problems. In addition, members need certainteamwork factors such as openness, supportiveness, action orientation, and a positive personal style (LaFasto & Larson, 2001).

4. Unified Commitment.

A common mistake is to call a work group a team but treat it as a collection of individuals (Hackman, 1990). Teams do not just happen: Theyare carefully designed and developed. Excellent teams are those that have developed a sense of unity or identification. Such team spiritoften can be developed by involving members in all aspects of the process (Larson & LaFasto, 1989).

5. Collaborative Climate.

The ability of a team to collaborate or work well together is essential to team effectiveness. A collaborative climate is one in which memberscan stay problem focused, listen to and understand one another, feel free to take risks, and be willing to compensate for one another. Tobuild an atmosphere that fosters collaboration, we need to develop trusting relationships based on honesty, openness, consistency, andrespect (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). Integration of individual actions is one of the fundamental characteristics of effective teams. Teammembers each have their own unique roles that they typically perform to contribute to the team’s success. Team failure may result from themembers’ “collective failure to coordinate and synchronize their individual contributions” (Zaccaro et al., 2001, p. 451). Effective teamleaders can facilitate a collaborative climate by managing their own needs to control, by making communication safe, by demanding andrewarding collaborative behavior, and by guiding the team’s problem-solving efforts (LaFasto & Larson, 2001).

6. Standards of Excellence.

Clear norms of conduct (how we should behave) are important for team functioning (Hackman, 2012). Team members’ performanceshould be regulated so that actions can be coordinated and tasks completed (Hackman & Walton, 1986). It is especially important that theorganizational context or the team itself set up standards of excellence so that members will feel pressure to perform at their highest levels.The standards must be clear and concrete, and all team members must be required to perform to standard (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). Ateam leader can facilitate this process by requiring results—making expectations clear and reviewing results—providing feedback toresolve performance issues, and rewarding results by acknowledging superior performance (LaFasto & Larson, 2001). With suchstandards in place and monitored, members will be encouraged to perform at their highest levels.

7. External Support and Recognition.

A supportive organizational context includes material resources, rewards for excellent performance, an educational system to developnecessary team skills, and an information system to provide data needed to accomplish the task (Wageman et al., 2009). A common mistakeis to give organizational teams challenging assignments but fail to give them organizational support to accomplish these assignments(Hackman, 1990). The leader must identify which type of support is needed and intervene as needed to secure this support (Hackman,2002). The best goals, team members, and commitment will not mean much if there is no money, equipment, or supplies for accomplishingthe goals. Also, organizations often ask employees to work on a difficult team assignment and then do not reward them with raises orbonuses for that performance. Hyatt and Ruddy (1997) found that having systems in place to support teams (clear direction, information,data, resources, rewards, and training) enables the team to become more effective and achieve performance goals. Teams can achieveexcellence if they are given the resources needed to do their jobs, are recognized for team accomplishments, and are rewarded for teamperformance rather than for individual performances (Larson & LaFasto, 1989).

8. Principled Leadership.

Effective team leadership has been found to consistently relate to team effectiveness (Zaccaro, Heinen, & Shuffler, 2009). Leadership hasbeen described as the central driver of team effectiveness, influencing the team through four sets of processes: cognitive, motivational,affective, and coordination (Zaccaro et al., 2001). Cognitively, the leader helps the team understand the problems confronting the team.Motivationally, the leader helps the team become cohesive and capable by setting high performance standards and helping the team toachieve them. Affectively, the leader helps the team handle stressful circumstances by providing clear goals, assignments, and strategies.Coordinately, the leader helps integrate the team’s activities by matching members’ skills to roles, providing clear performance strategies,monitoring feedback, and adapting to environmental changes.

Effective team leaders are committed to the team’s goals and give members autonomy to unleash their talents when possible. Leaders canreduce the effectiveness of their team by being unwilling to confront inadequate performance, diluting the team’s ability to perform byhaving too many priorities, and overestimating the positive aspects of team performance. Leaders can enhance the effectiveness of theirteam by keeping the team focused on its goals, maintaining a collaborative climate, building confidence among members, demonstratingtechnical competence, setting priorities, and managing performance (Larson & LaFasto, 1989). It is essential that the leadership of the teambe assessed along with the other criteria of team excellence. Such feedback is essential to the health and effectiveness of the team.

The leadership of the team can use these eight characteristics of team excellence (Table 14.1) in a normative fashion to assess the health ofthe team and to take appropriate action to address any weaknesses. If the team leader assesses that one or more of the eight characteristicsof team success are not being achieved, then he or she needs to address these weaknesses. Continually assessing the standards of teameffectiveness can also provide feedback, enabling leaders to determine whether past actions and interventions had the desired results. Toassess team effectiveness, team leaders need to use whatever tools are at their disposal, such as direct observation, surveys, feedback, andperformance indicators. The information gained from the analysis of team effectiveness can provide feedback to the leader and guide futureleadership decisions. The line on the Hill Model of Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) that connects the “Team Effectiveness” box at the bottomto the “Leadership Decisions” box at the top reflects the ongoing learning process of data gathering, analysis, and decision making. Suchfeedback loops demonstrate the dynamic and evolving nature of teams (Ilgen et al., 2005). Past leadership decisions and actions arereflected in the team’s performance and relational outcomes. In turn, these indicators of team effectiveness shape the future analysis anddecisions of the team leadership.

Leadership Decisions

At the top of the Hill Model for Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) are “Leadership Decisions,” which include the major decisions the team’sleadership needs to make when determining whether and how to intervene to improve team functioning. The first of these decisions iswhether it is most appropriate to continue to observe and monitor the team or to intervene in the team’s activities and take action. Thesecond decision is to choose whether a task or a relational intervention is needed (i.e., does the team need help in accomplishing its tasks,or does it need help in maintaining relationships?). The final decision is whether to intervene at the internal level (within the team itself) orat the external level (in the team’s environment).

Figure 14.2 McGrath’s Critical Leadership Functions

Source: Based on McGrath’s critical leadership functions as cited in “LeadingGroups in Organizations,” by J. R. Hackman and R. E. Walton, 1986, in P. S.Goodman & Associates (Eds.), Designing Effective Work Groups (p. 76). SanFrancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Leadership Decision 1:

Should I monitor the team or take action? The first decision confronting the team’s leadership is whether to keep observing the team or totake action to help the team. McGrath (as cited in Hackman & Walton, 1986) outlined the critical leadership functions of group effectiveness,taking into account the analysis of the situation both internally and externally and whether this analysis indicates that the leader shouldtake an immediate action. Figure 14.2, “McGrath’s Critical Leadership Functions,” demonstrates these two dimensions of leadershipbehavior: monitoring versus taking action and internal group issues versus external group issues. As leaders, we can diagnose, analyze, orforecast problems (monitoring), or we can take immediate action to solve a problem. We can also focus on the problems within the group(internal) or problems outside the group (external). These two dimensions result in the four types of team leadership functions shown in Figure 14.2.

Quadrants 1 and 2 in Figure 14.2 focus on the internal operations of the team. In Quadrant 1, the leader is diagnosing group deficiencies,and in Quadrant 2, the leader is acting to repair or remedy the observed problems. Quadrants 3 and 4 focus on the external operations ofthe team. In the third quadrant, the leader is scanning the environment to determine and forecast any external changes that will affect thegroup. In the fourth quadrant, the leader acts to prevent any negative changes in the environment from hurting the team.

Therefore, the first decision confronting the team’s leadership is “Should I continue monitoring these factors, or should I take action basedon the information I have already gathered and structured?” To develop an accurate mental model of team functioning, leaders need tomonitor both the internal and external environments to gather information, reduce equivocality, provide structure, and overcome barriers.Fleishman et al. (1991) described two phases in this initial process: information search and structuring. A leader must first seek outinformation to understand the current state of the team’s functioning (information search), and then this information must be analyzed,organized, and interpreted so the leader can decide how to act (information structuring). Leaders can also help their information searchprocess by obtaining feedback from team members, networking with others outside the team, conducting team assessment surveys, andevaluating team outcomes. Once information on the team is gathered, the leader needs to structure or interpret this information so that heor she can make action plans. Virtual teams operate under the same group dynamics principles and also need to monitor and intervene asappropriate (Berry, 2011).

All members of the team can engage in monitoring (information search and structuring) and collectively provide distributed or sharedleadership to help the team adapt to changing conditions. In fast-paced, rapidly changing situations, the team leader and members mighthave to work in concert to assess the situation accurately. The official leader of the team might be too busy processing information from theenvironment to process information internal to the team. The team members can help the leader by staying on top of internal problems.Together, they can form an accurate picture of the team’s effectiveness.

In addition to gathering and interpreting information, team leaders must take the right action based on this information. Determining theright action to take is at the very heart of team leadership. It involves selecting from among competing courses of action to facilitate theteam’s work (Barge, 1996). Leaders differ in their tendencies to take action quickly (hasty to act) or their tendencies to delay taking actionby analyzing the situation at length (slow to act). “Hasty to act” leaders might prevent problems from getting out of control; however, theymight not make the right intervention because they do not have all the information, and such fast action might undermine the developmentof shared leadership. “Slow to act” leaders might encourage other team members to emerge as leaders (shared leadership), but the action-taking delay might cause the team’s problem to become unmanageable.

The exact timing of a leadership intervention is as important as the specific type of intervention (Wageman et al., 2009). It has beenproposed that groups go through developmental stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning (Tuckman & Jensen,2010). Certain behaviors are common and even expected at each of these stages. If, for example, conflict was occurring during the stormingstage of team life, the leadership might not intervene at that time but just continue monitoring. Or, the leadership might choose anintervention that advances the team to the next phase of norming. Others have described three phases of group life and the leadershipneeded during each: (1) motivational coaching (at start), (2) consultative coaching (at midpoint), and (3) educational coaching (at end). Theimportant aspect of timing is that the leader should understand where the team is in its life cycle and provide the type of leadership neededat that time (Hackman, 2012).

Leadership Decision 2:

Should I intervene to meet task or relational needs? Returning to the top box in Figure 14.1 (“Leadership Decisions”), the second decisionconfronting the leader is whether the team needs help in dealing with relational issues or task issues. Since the early study of small groups,the focus has been on two critical leadership functions: task and maintenance. Task leadership functions include getting the job done,making decisions, solving problems, adapting to changes, making plans, and achieving goals. Maintenance functions include developing apositive climate, solving interpersonal problems, satisfying members’ needs, and developing cohesion. These two functions have also beenreferred to in terms of performance and development (i.e., how well the team has accomplished its task and how well the team hasdeveloped effective relationships).

Superior team leadership focuses constantly on both task and maintenance functions (Kinlaw, 1998); both types of leadership behaviors(task-focused and person-focused) have been found to be related to perceived team effectiveness (Burke et al., 2006).

Task functions are closely intertwined with relational functions. If the team is well maintained and has good interpersonal relationships,then the members will be able to work together effectively and get their job done. If not, they will spend all of their time infighting, sniping,and working at cross-purposes. Similarly, if the team is productive and successful in accomplishing its task, it will be easier to maintain apositive climate and good relations. Conversely, failing teams often take their lack of performance out on each other, and fighting teamsoften accomplish little.

In virtual teams connected across time and space by electronic media, it is important to focus on both task and relational issues (Han &Beyerlein, 2016). The focus on building team relationships is even more critical for virtual teams than in traditional co-located teams.Virtual team leaders must be able to “read” all the personal and contextual nuances in a world of electronic communications. They must beable to understand the possible causes of silence, misunderstanding, and slights without any of the usual signs to guide them. Leaders mustbe sensitive to the team process and must pay attention to even small matters that could interfere with the team’s success (Pauleen, 2004).Virtual teams place even greater demands on team leaders—50% more time investment—than the more traditional co-located team (Dyer,Dyer, & Dyer, 2007).

Research suggests that leaders of virtual teams should begin the team with face-to-face meetings, if possible, to facilitate trust, comfort, andrapport. In addition, virtual team leaders need to focus on project management and regular, organized team meetings. However, virtualteam leaders need to be careful not to be too task focused and to also work to develop social relationships among the team. Virtual teamleaders also need to keep literate in all new communication technologies and know when to use them for optimal teamwork (Humbley,O’Neill, & Kline, 2009). As the prevalence of virtual teams expands, specific leadership issues and interventions related to these virtualteams are increasingly becoming the focus of study (Berry, 2011; Cordery, Soo, Kirkman, Rosen, & Mathieu, 2009; Zaccaro, Ardison, & Orvis,2004).

Leadership Decision 3:

Should I intervene internally or externally? If a decision was made to take action or intervene, the leader must make the third strategicleadership decision in Figure 14.1 and determine what level of the team process needs leadership attention: internal leadership actions orexternal leadership actions. Do I need to intervene inside of the team, or is the problem external to the team? Effective team leaders analyzeand balance the internal and external demands of the team and react appropriately (Barge, 1996).

Is there internal conflict between members of the team? Then perhaps taking an internal relational action to maintain the team and improveinterpersonal relationships would be most appropriate. Are the team goals unclear? Then perhaps an internal task intervention is needed tofocus on goals. Is the organizational environment not providing proper support to the team to do its job? Then perhaps an externalenvironmental intervention focusing on obtaining external support for the team might be the most appropriate intervention.

The current focus of research is on real-life organizational work teams that exist within a larger organizational environment. In addition tobalancing the internal task and relational needs of the team, the leader has to help the team adapt to and function effectively in itsenvironment. Most teams focus on the internal problems of the team. But it is increasingly important for teams to also be externallyoriented to “reach across boundaries to forge dense networks of connection, both inside and outside the organization” so that they candeal effectively with the fast-changing environment (Ancona, Bresman, & Caldwell, 2009).

Leadership Actions

The middle section of the Hill Model for Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) lists a number of specific leadership actions that can be performedinternally (“Task” and “Relational”) or externally (“Environmental”). These lists are not exhaustive but are compiled from research on teamexcellence and team performance discussed earlier in this chapter. For example, teams that have clear goals, standards, effective structure,and decision making will have higher task performance. Teams that can manage conflict, collaborate well together, and build commitmentwill have good relationships. Teams that are well connected to and protected from their environment will also be more productive.

It is up to the leader to assess what action, if any, is needed and then intervene with the specific leadership function to meet the demands ofthe situation. The leader needs the ability to perform these skills and to make a strategic choice as to the most appropriate function or skillfor the intervention. For example, if the leader decided that team members were arguing, he or she might decide to initiate conflictmanagement. To be an effective leader, one needs to respond with the action that is required of the situation. Thus, it is the job of the leader toanalyze and mediate the situation to make the best decisions for the good of the team. A detailed knowledge of group dynamics andinterpersonal processes is key to effective team leadership.

A team leader also needs to recognize and interpret what is getting in the way of the team’s goal accomplishment and then make a strategicchoice and respond with the appropriate action (Gouran & Hirokawa, 1996). If a problem is diagnosed as a team performance problem,then the leader needs to determine the appropriate action to solve this task problem (e.g., goal focusing, standard setting, or training). If aproblem is diagnosed as a team development problem, then the leader needs to determine the appropriate action to solve this relationalproblem (e.g., managing conflict or building commitment). If a problem is diagnosed as an environmental problem, then the leader needs todetermine the appropriate action to solve this context problem (e.g., networking, advocating, or sharing information).

Internal Task Leadership Actions. The “Task” box in the Hill Model for Team Leadership (Figure 14.1) lists the set of skills or actions that theleader might perform to improve task performance. After monitoring the team’s performance, the leader might choose to intervene in oneof the following task areas:

• Goal focusing(clarifying, gaining agreement)

For example, if team members seem to be going off in different directions, the leader might intervene to clarify the team’s goals or workwith members to obtain agreement on goals.

• Structuring for results(planning, visioning, organizing, clarifying roles, delegating)

For example, if the leader determines that the team is stuck in day-to-day affairs and not looking to or building for the future, then he orshe might intervene by helping the team vision and plan for the future.

• Facilitating decision making(informing, controlling, coordinating, mediating, synthesizing, focusing on issues)

For example, if the leader determines that members are not adequately sharing information with each other, he or she might askquestions to seek out the information that is not being shared.

• Training team members in task skills(educating, developing)

For example, if the leader observes that the team members do not have the skills necessary to make well-reasoned decisions, the leadermight provide a training seminar in decision making.

• Maintaining standards of excellence(assessing team and individual performance, confronting inadequate performance)

For example, if the leader observes that some team members are coming late to meetings or not attending meetings, the leader mighthave to take direct action and confront these members to address this inadequate performance.

Internal Relational Leadership Actions. The second set of internal leadership actions in Figure 14.1 reflects those that the leader needs toimplement to improve team relationships. After monitoring the team’s performance, the leader might choose to intervene in one of thefollowing interpersonal areas:

• Coaching team members in interpersonal skills

For example, if the team leader observes that team members do not seem to be listening to one another, then he or she might interveneby leading team members in a listening exercise.

• Collaborating(including, involving)

For example, if the leader observes that some team members are not taking others’ opinions into account, then the leader mightintervene to encourage compromise.

• Managing conflict and power issues(fighting or avoiding confrontation, questioning ideas, avoiding groupthink)

For example, if the leader observes that the members are not questioning ideas and are just agreeing with each other in order to movequickly to a decision, then the leader might intervene by providing a discussion on the negative aspects of groupthink (Neck & Manz,1994).

• Building commitment and esprit de corps(being optimistic, innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing)

For example, if the team seems to have low morale, the leader could intervene to build commitment and unity by recognizing past teamsuccesses.

• Satisfying individual member needs(trusting, supporting, advocating)

For example, if a team member seems stressed due to disrespect from other members, the leader might provide support to the upsetmember and advocate to the team on his or her behalf.

• Modeling ethical and principled practices(fair, consistent, normative)

For example, if a team leader monitors the team and observes that it is inconsistent vis-à-vis the members sometimes treating in-groupmembers differently from out-group members, then the leader might intervene and change his or her own behavior to be fair andconsistent to all members.

External Environmental Leadership Actions. The “External Leadership Actions” (Figure 14.1) reflect those actions the leader might implementto improve the environmental interface with the team. Real-life teams do not exist in a laboratory—they are subsystems of the largerorganizational and societal context. To stay viable, the team needs to monitor this environment closely and determine what actions shouldbe taken to enhance team effectiveness (Barge, 1996; Hyatt & Ruddy, 1997; Zaccaro et al., 2001). If environmental monitoring suggests aleadership intervention, then the leader needs to select from the following functions:

• Networking and forming alliances in environment(gathering information, increasing influence)

For example, if the leader observes that the team’s members are not well known or are not well connected throughout the organization,then the leader might intervene by interacting and forming relationships with powerful and respected individuals in the organization.

• Advocating and representing team to environment

For example, if the leader learns that organizational superiors are unaware of the team’s successes, the leader might initiate an “FYI”policy, sending information about all successes upward as they happen. The leader can also initiate a team newsletter that chroniclesteam efforts to accomplish the same function but to a broader context.

• Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources, support, and recognition for team

For example, a leader might determine that the team does not have enough clerical support to accomplish its goals. The leader thennegotiates with upper management to provide the needed support or, if failing in this, to persuade upper management to alter theteam’s goals accordingly.

• Buffering team members from environmental distractions

For example, if the leader observes that the team is overloaded with tasks, then he or she might intervene by keeping unnecessarydemands and distractions away from the team members so that they can concentrate on their goals.

• Assessing environmental indicators of team’s effectiveness(surveys, evaluations, performance indicators)

For example, if the leader observes that the members of the team have no way of knowing how well they are doing, the leader canprovide data from the environment as to how their performance stacks up with other teams.

• Sharing relevant environmental information with team

For example, if the team leader reviews the environment and finds that the organization’s business is going in a new direction, he or shecan share this information with the team to keep them in line with these new directions.

Team leadership is complex; there are no simple recipes for team success. Team leaders must learn to be open and objective inunderstanding and diagnosing team problems and skillful in selecting the most appropriate actions (or inactions) to help achieve the team’sgoals. It is important to reemphasize that these critical functions need not be carried out only by the leader. Experienced members in amature team might share these leadership behaviors. As long as the team’s critical needs have been met, the leadership behavior, whetherenacted by the leader or team members, has been effective. The key assertion of the functional perspective is that the leader is to do whateveris necessary to take care of unmet needs of the team. If the team members are taking care of most of the needs, then the leader has to do verylittle.

Leadership essentials: Practical and proven approaches in leadership and supervision Comment by Washburn Kelly: Second Reading Material

Chapter 2

Teams, Teamwork and Leadership Styles

If you can use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Leadership Styles

All people are shaped by what they have seen, what they have learned, and whom they have met. Who you are determines the way you work with other people? Some people are happy and smiling all the time. Others are serious. Some leaders can wade into a room full of strangers and within five minutes have everyone engaged and thinking, “How have I lived so long without meeting this person?”

Some very competent leaders are uncomfortable in social situations. Most of us are somewhere in between. Although leadership theory describes at great length how you should interact with your subordinates and how you must strive to learn and improve your leadership skills, you always must be yourself. Anything else comes across as fake and insincere.

Effective leaders are flexible enough to adjust their leadership style and techniques to the people they lead and the situations they encounter. Some subordinates respond best to coaxing, suggestions, or gentle prodding. Others need, and sometimes even want, the verbal equivalent of a kick in the pants. Treating people fairly does not mean treating them as if they were clones of one another. In fact, if you treat everyone the same way, you probably are being unfair because different people need different things from you.

Think of it this way: Suppose you must teach safety procedures to a large group of employees ranging in experience from new to very experienced. The senior employees know a great deal about the subject while the new employees know very little. To meet all their needs, you must teach the new employees more than you teach the senior employees.

If you train the new employees only on the advanced skills the senior employees need, the new employees will be lost. If you make the senior employees sit through training on the basic tasks the new employees need, you will waste the senior employee’s time. You must match the training (and your leadership) to the experience of those being trained. In the same way, you must adjust your leadership style and techniques to the experience of your people and characteristics of your organization.

Obviously, you would not lead senior team members the same way you would lead new employees. But the easiest distinctions to make are those of rank and experience. You must take into account personalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all the elements of the complex mix of character traits that make dealing with people so difficult and so rewarding. One of the many things that makes your job tough is that you must figure out what your subordinates need and what they are able to do in order to get their best performance even when they do not know themselves.

When discussing leadership styles, many people focus on the extremes, autocratic and democratic. Autocratic leaders tell people what to do with no explanations. Their message is, “I am the boss. You will do it because I said so.” Democratic leaders use their personalities to persuade subordinates.

There are many shades in between. e following paragraphs discuss five of them. However, bear in mind that competent leaders mix different elements of all these styles according to place, task, and people involved.

Using different leadership styles in different situations or elements of different styles in the same situation is not inconsistent. Rather, the opposite is true. If you are able to use only one leadership style in a given situation, then you are inflexible and will have difficulty operating in situations where that style does not fit.

Directing Leadership Style

The directing style is leader-centered. Leaders using this style do not solicit input from their subordinates. They give detailed instructions on how, when, and where they want a task performed. ey then closely supervise its execution.

The directing style may be appropriate when time is short, and leaders do not have a chance to explain things. They may simply give orders: Do this; Go there; Move. Leaders may revert to this style in fast-paced operations or in emergency situations, even with experienced subordinates. But if the leader has created a climate of trust, subordinates will assume the leader has switched to the directing style because of the circumstances.

e directing style is also appropriate when leading inexperienced teams or individuals who are not yet trained to operate on their own. In this kind of situation, the leader probably will remain close to the action to make sure things go smoothly.

Some people mistakenly believe the directing style means using abusive and demeaning language or threatening and intimidating others. This is wrong. If you are ever tempted to act this way, whether due to pressure, stress, or what seems like improper behavior by a subordinate, ask yourself: Would I want to work for someone like me? Would I want my boss to see and hear me treat subordinates this way? Would I want to be treated this way?

Participating Leadership Style

The participating style centers on both the leader and team. Given a job to do, leaders ask subordinates for input, information, and recommendations, but make the final decision on what to do. This style is especially appropriate for leaders who have time for such consultations or who are dealing with experienced subordinates.

The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader.

The team-building approach lies behind the participating leadership style. When subordinates help to create a plan it becomes, at least in part, their plan. This ownership creating a strong incentive to invest the effort necessary to make the plan work. Asking for this kind of input is a sign of a leader’s strength and self-confidence. But asking for advice does not mean the leader is obligated to follow it. The leader alone is always responsible for the quality of decisions and the outcome of plans.

Delegating Leadership Style

The delegating style involves giving subordinates the authority to solve problems and make decisions without first clearing them through the leader. Leaders with mature and experienced subordinates, or who want to create a learning experience for subordinates, often need only to give them authority to make decisions along with the necessary resources and a clear understanding of the mission’s purpose. As always, the leader is responsible for what does or does not happen, but in the delegating leadership style, the leader holds subordinate leaders accountable for their actions. this is the style most often used by managers dealing with senior supervisors, and by organizational and strategic leaders.

Transformational and Transactional Leadership Styles

There is a distinction between the transformational leadership style, which focuses on inspiration and change, and the transactional leadership style, which focuses on rewards and punishments. We do not deny that rewards and punishments are effective and sometimes necessary. However, carrots and sticks alone do not inspire individuals to excel.

Transformational Leadership Style

This style transforms subordinates by challenging them to rise above their immediate needs and self-interest. The transformational style is developmental. It emphasizes individual growth (both professional and personal) and organizational enhancement. Key features of the transformational style include empowering and mentally stimulating subordinates. The transformational leaders consider and motivate team members as individuals first, then the group. To use the transformational style, you must have the courage to communicate your intent and then step back and let your subordinates work. You must also be aware that immediate benefits often are delayed until the job or task is accomplished. The transformational style allows you to take advantage of the skills and knowledge of experienced subordinates who may have better ideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaders who use this style communicate reasons for their decisions or actions and build a broader understanding and ability to exercise initiative and operate effectively with subordinates. Not all situations lend themselves to this style. It is most effective during periods that call for change or when presenting new opportunities. It also works well when organizations face a crisis, instability, mediocrity, or disenchantment. It may not be effective when subordinates are inexperienced, when the mission allows little deviation from accepted procedures, or when subordinates are not motivated. Leaders who use only the transformational leadership style limit their ability to influence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style

In contrast, some leaders employ only the transactional leadership style. This style includes such techniques as:

• Motivating subordinates to work by offering rewards or threatening punishment.
• Prescribing task assignments in writing.
• Outlining all the conditions necessary to complete the task, including the applicable rules and regulations, the benefits of success, and the consequences, which include possible disciplinary actions or failure.
• Management by exception, where leaders focus on their subordinates’ failures, showing up only when something goes wrong.

The leader who relies exclusively on the transactional style, rather than combining it with the transformational style, evokes only short-term commitment from subordinates and discourages risk taking and innovation there are situations where the transactional style is acceptable, if not preferred. For example, a leader who wants to emphasize safety could reward the organization, if the organization prevents any serious safety-related incidents for a two-month period. In this case, the leader’s intent appears clear. Safe habits are rewarded, but unsafe acts will not be tolerated. However, using only the transactional style can make the leader’s efforts appear self-serving. In this example, employees might interpret the leader’s attempt to reward safe practices as an effort to look good by focusing on something that is unimportant but has the boss’s attention. Such perceptions can destroy the trust subordinates have in the leader. Using the transactional style alone also can deprive subordinates of opportunities to grow, because it leaves no room for honest mistakes. The most effective leaders combine techniques from the transformational and transactional leadership styles to fit the situation. A strong base of transactional understanding, supplemented by charisma, inspiration, and individualized concern for each subordinate, produces the most enthusiastic and genuine response. Subordinates will be more committed, creative, and innovative. They also will be more likely to take calculated risks to accomplish their mission. Leaders can avoid any misunderstanding of their intent by combining transformational and transactional techniques. they can explain why safety is important (intellectual stimulation) while, at the same time, encourage their subordinates to take care of each other (individualized concern).

Leading Teams

Few leadership roles are as important in empowered organizations as team building. Effective teamwork is the foundation of productivity. In this chapter we will explore several important topics concerning team leadership. For the purposes of clarification, when we refer to “team” in team leadership, we mean your day-to-day work team and/or any special project teams that you might be in charge of temporarily.

To get you started, the following are some suggestions for building effective teams. ese concepts will be discussed in more detail throughout this section.

• Allow time for introductions. When the team is formed, allow people to get to know one another, and to clarify roles and goals.
• Show respect for everyone’s points of view at the earliest point possible. Try to discourage dominant behaviors by some team members. Research shows that the earliest moments of a team’s life define how its members will interact thereafter.
• Establish clear communication channels. Model good listening behavior and encourage it in others. Determine how team members will communicate, how problems will be analyzed, how decisions will be made, and how the team’s work will get done.
• Encourage balanced participation early on. To discourage sub-teams from forming, ensure balanced participation and move people around so they interact with everyone else.
• Constructively manage conflict and team difficulties. Do this as soon as the conflicts occur. Never allow a problem to fester.
• Avoid imposing your own ground rules and processes. Instead, let the team decide collectively on its rules for conduct, meetings, and reaching consensus. Research shows that teams that make their own process decisions come together more quickly and are more productive.

As a supervisor, you will be in charge of a team of employees. Your team may include your regular work team or it may also include a special project team created for a short-term purpose. Whether it is your work team or a project team, there are several fundamental principles of team leadership.

A team is a number of persons associated together in work or activity working toward a common goal. A team can either be made of members selected by a team leader or the team leader may be assigned to an existing team.

The first step towards ensuring a team’s success is to look at the abilities, experiences, strengths, and weaknesses of each potential team member. Interview team members to see what types of tasks they have been assigned in the past and then ask for results associated with each task.

Next, look at your own strengths and weaknesses to see how they align with those of your team. Look at the overall project, goals, deliverables, and/or strategies. Finally, select and assign team members based on each member’s abilities and according to project requirements, not necessarily on their preferences.

Be a visionary! See beyond the project’s endpoint. Tell your team the program goals and objectives, the important milestones involved, and the requirements for the deliverables. Discuss and debate the strategies and metrics for meeting the team’s goals/objectives with the team members. Delegate tasks to the team members most qualified to handle them. Rely on them to teach others these tasks. Most importantly, trust your team, being careful not to micromanage them nor to being too hands-off. Be there for them when they need your help.

Empower your team members! Have an “open door” policy and allow your team members to make decisions and mistakes without fear of retaliation. Praise them when they do well and counsel them when they make mistakes or do wrong. Share the credit, take the blame. By empowering your team members, they will help you with future endeavors.

Stages in Team Development 2

Forming. This beginning stage could last a few days or go on for weeks. People think about their new tasks and new environment. Members learn about each other and plan their work and their new roles around these new relationships. Emotions are positive. The work team should also learn about team processes in preparation for rough times ahead. They need to learn the rudiments of conflict resolution, communication, time management, and group decision-making

Storming. The anticipation and enthusiasm of the forming stage quickly fall away as the team faces a myriad of technical, interpersonal, and social problems. They fight and argue. People feel frustration, resentment, and anger as problems fester and work goes undone. Leaders also experience frustration and are tempted to intervene.

Members are on an emotional roller coaster from elation to depression and back again. Without training and support, the team may not progress. Conflict has a bad reputation. But conflict is normal, natural, and sometimes even necessary. Handled well, conflict can be used to build skills and confidence as the team transitions to the Norming Stage.

Norming. Here, team members work through individual and social issues. They establish their own norms of behavior and begin to trust each other. As the team develops interpersonal skills, it also hones other skills. Members begin to leverage the strengths of each other for the good of the team. They become increasingly adept at problem solving, learning new skills and cross training each other.

Performing. Now things begin to click. Members help each other, conflict is depersonalized, problems are solved, and goals are achieved and exceeded. Satisfaction and pride become dominant emotions. e team takes pride in its work, in its accomplishments, and in its team interaction. Individual stake pride in their membership.

Adjourning. Some teams have an end, and there can be disappointment and sadness when a team is done and no longer working together. e loss is real, and members should be given time to adjust to their new roles, whether it is an individual one or a new team role.

Team Leadership

A manager is a person who conducts business or a person who directs a team. To manage is to exercise executive, administrative, and supervisory direction; to work upon or try to alter for a purpose and to succeed in accomplishing. Managing is the process of organizing people and tasks to accomplish some purpose. A leader, however, is a person who leads, or a person who has commanding authority or influence. To lead is to guide in away especially by going in advance; to guide someone or something along the way. A leader is someone who blazes a trail and takes others along for the ride in order to further a cause. When you manage, your complete projects and programs by organizing people and tasks in a logical order. Leading means creating a path for others in order to accomplish a greater objective. People lead in order to create a legacy that will be maintained by others for the long run. You need the qualities of both a manager and leader in order to accomplish your projects and programs, and to create a plan for the viability of your organization (develop short-term and a long-range plans). In short, the aim of management is to accomplish tasks, projects, and programs effectively, while leadership aims to help others achieve their personal best.

Learning to Lead

Focus on quality by:

• Setting performance standards
• Outlining realistic goals
• Striving to ensure the highest quality with all objectives
• Maintaining a checklist of your duties and performance of duties

When leading your team, you should:

• Develop strengths — self-confidence and self-determination
• Set high goals
• Eliminate weaknesses — face up to your own mistakes
• Prepare to lead — understand your team members
• Be a strategist

Examine the process — involve everyone in decision making. Conduct a detailed analysis to determine background information. Plan effectively for the team and then implement your plans, both for short and long terms.

To better assess your team and mission, consider a SWOT analysis:

• Strengths: What are your competencies? What do you do well?
• Weaknesses: What are your shortfalls and competitive disadvantages? What can you improve on?
• Opportunities: What is out there that you can take advantage of?
• Threats: What areas are deteriorating? What do you need to be aware of?

Communication

Recognize barriers. People do not always think or hear alike. To achieve clarity with your communications, you should:

• Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate?
• Deliver the message clearly using the right media.
• Ensure the message has been clearly and correctly understood as intended.

Principles for People Development

Success in developing others will depend on how well you accomplish each of the following:

• Value of People: Your attitude about others
• Commitment to People: How much time will you give them?
• Integrity with People: Character, or how you treat them
• Standard of People: Vision, or how you see them • Influence over People: How you lead them

By observing and drawing on the experiences of leaders successful in people development, we learn there are three main areas where they differ from those who are not. Successful people developers make the right assumptions about people, ask the right questions, and give the right assistance when needed.

When determining standards for your team, you should:

• Involve employees in developing standards and/or goals and timetables.
• Provide personal examples of topnotch performance- based work on which standards can be developed. • Upgrade performance standards whenever there is a need and an opportunity.
• Make standards measurable so you can determine successful outcomes.

Measures and objectives are important to help your team chart its direction. they tell the team what it is supposed to be doing. Measures and objectives are necessary to:

• Monitor and evaluate the use of company resources and the level of controllable costs.
• Establish measurable and realistic work targets and deadlines.
• Monitor performance for any discrepancies that need to be addressed.
• Establish procedures and rules that employees are expected to follow.
• Drive interest in progress toward longer-term objectives or goals.

Performance Feedback

Performance feedback is critical to tell your team members how they are doing. Specifically, performance feedback:

• Tells people how they are doing on a day-by-day basis as well as over extended periods of time.
• Is important for coaching and training employees on how to improve performance.
• Is used to determine if goals and objectives are being met.
• Allows employees the opportunity to change their performance.

Performance feedback is an essential element of the supervisor/ subordinate relationship. The vast majority of people want to make a difference in their place of work. They want to be recognized for their accomplishments and learn how to become even better. They want to know where they stand. People crave feedback that is honest, positive, objective, timely, and fair. But performance feedback is rare.

There are three main obstacles to giving effective feedback in today’s leadership environment. The first is the pace of operations. Supervisors often say they are so busy that they do not have the time to devote to giving feedback properly. The second has to do with working relationships in today’s business environment. The good news is that more and more supervisors are taking the time to get to know their subordinates and their families. They say their “door is always open.” The downside of this is that this type of working relationship can make it hard for supervisors to tell their subordinates that they aren’t doing their job well and they could be more effective.

The third obstacle lies in the willingness and readiness of the subordinate to receive feedback. Subordinates might have trouble recognizing there are areas in which they can improve. They might be defensive or concerned for their jobs. There might be personality differences or other issues between the supervisor and subordinates that interfere with communication.

Effective supervisors must be aware of all the dynamics of the relationship and make appropriate adjustments in their approach to feedback.

A formal feedback process has important advantages for supervisors. It motivates subordinates and helps them become more effective. By establishing dialogue with subordinates, supervisors can better understand their individual wants and needs, and the climate of the organization. In organizations where retaining quality people is a high priority, an effective performance feedback system is essential.

In order for performance feedback to be effective, it must follow these key principles:

Specific: Feedback must be based on observable behavior, not on people’s feelings or the conclusions drawn from their behavior. For example, “Last Friday morning I saw you help Mary fix a problem on her computer. Your willingness to share your expertise is a great example of teamwork and makes this a more effective organization.” This specific example, tied to a positive organizational outcome, is more effective than saying “You are a helpful person,” since the subordinate can link the feedback to an actual event.

Timely: Feedback should be given in a timely manner so that both parties can recall the specific behavior involved.

Actionable: Feedback should be based on something over which a person has control. When necessary, the supervisor should identify ways to improve performance.

Measurable: Goals and objectives should be stated in terms where both parties will know if the goals are achieved.

Achievable: Performance measures should be realistic and within the resources that are available to the subordinate.

Positive: Give both positive and critical feedback but tip the balance in the positive direction. The Center for Creative Leadership suggests a 4:1 ratio of positive to critical feedback.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon after their arrival as possible.

Non-evaluative: Opinions, perceptions, and reactions should be differentiated from facts. Don’t psychoanalyze; avoid inferences and interpretations. Avoid labels.

Establish a dialogue: The effective feedback session is not a one-way communication. The supervisor should ask the subordinate if they fully understand what is being said and then listen carefully to the response. e supervisor should ensure the subordinate understands their role in the organization and how it contributes to the goals and mission.

When new employees come on board, the supervisor should meet with them as soon after their arrival as possible. The purpose of this initial feedback session is to help establish the relationship between the supervisor and employee. It is also about setting expectations for the upcoming evaluation period. It is not necessary to negotiate objectives with the subordinate, but the supervisor should help the subordinate take ownership of the goals and internalize expectations. Both parties should leave the initial feedback session with a clear understanding of what is expected. The supervisor provides a written record of the feedback session. This written record is held in confidence.

Supervisors often are required to conduct a follow-up feedback session midway through the evaluation period. This session should be conducted using the principles above and should address the extent to which the expectations were met. As before, a confidential written record is provided. The annual performance appraisal system is not a substitute for good communication or for timely, routine feedback. For example, if the subordinate is consistently late for routine meetings, it makes no sense to wait until the annual appraisal cycle to make them aware of the problem. In the same way, workers who consistently perform above standards should not have to wait months to know that their work is appreciated. Supervisors should not assume that, because certain behaviors are obvious to them, they are equally obvious to the subordinate. Daily or routine feedback needs to remain consistent with the principles above.

Annual performance discussions should have no surprises for the employee. The evaluation should summarize the positive and critical feedback given to the employee during specified time periods.

Finally, supervisors who routinely give feedback (both positive and corrective) to subordinates may want to follow up with a personal note or memo. It is possible that the feedback is so routine (or the subordinate so unreceptive) that the subordinate misses the message or doesn’t even realize that feedback has taken place.

Giving feedback is a key responsibility of a leader. Work climate surveys strongly suggest that job satisfaction, morale, and retention are closely related to the ability of a leader to provide feedback. Senior leaders must set the example for the organization by giving timely feedback and demanding that leaders at all levels do the same.

The 6 C’s of Teamwork

Competence

• Develops and meets standards
• Continuously improves effectiveness through training
• Successfully carries out assignments
• Works together productively
• Strives to increase the level of knowledge concerning individuals, departments, and company issues

Candor

• Honest with each other, encouraging others to speak freely
• Actively listens to the opinions of others with an open mind
• Seeks new ideas and challenges old ones
• Confronts problems and controversial issues assertively Consensus
• Uses facts to support strong opinions
• Develops innovative solutions together
• Uses a win-win approach to conflict
• Develops excellent solutions and supports final decisions
• Strives for total agreement on important issues

Critique

• Candid, but sensitive to others • Uses examples and facts as a basis for drawing conclusions • Focuses on improvements • Evaluates processes during and aer projects Cooperation • Believes we are all in this together • Involves all members fully • Shares ideas and information willingly • Sets challenging goals

Commitment

• Sets rules and then follows them
• Holds self and others accountable
• Seeks team success over individual success
• Commits to following the 6 C’s

Seven Keys to Team Leadership

1. Help the team identify its purpose. People work more effectively when they understand the goals they are trying to achieve. As a leader, it is your job to help the team members see the desired outcome of their efforts, and help them set specific goals and milestones along the way.
2. Set the scope and boundaries.Teams need to know what they should tackle and what is too big or not their responsibility. By helping teams manage the scope of their work you will keep them more focused and on target to reach the goals more quickly.
3. Show, through both your words and actions, that you believe in them.If you do not believe in the team concept, you will not effectively lead teams. If you do believe both in the concept and in a particular team’s potential, you need to let them know that. Show through both your words and actions that you believe in them. Once they have purpose and goals and your belief in them, they are on their way to success.
4. Define your role. Your role is to lead, not to do the work or make all of the decisions. Tell team members what your role is and isn’t. Help them see how you are relying on their experience, knowledge and intellect in the completion of the team’s work.
5. Be a supporter. Support the team with your actions. Do not just delegate the work to the team and then wipe your hands of any further responsibility. Teams will experience obstacles and roadblocks. It is your job to remove those roadblocks, find additional resources, and provide support. It is like a hike. If you are in front of a group on a hike, you will do your best to remove impediments that might slow down or injure those that follow. Your role on a business team is just the same.
6. Be a facilitator. Help the team succeed. Provide guidance when needed. Remain hands off as much as you can. Let the team succeed and develop itself toward greater achievement at the same time. To facilitate means “to make easier,” and that is your role. Remember that you chose to use a team to accomplish the task, so let it achieve that goal.
7. Be careful about what you say. Teams often look to leaders to make the final decisions or assume that the leader has veto power on any decision in the end. If you really support the team approach, and are genuine in wanting and needing its input, you need to sit back and let team members speak. If you are always the first person to talk on a subject, you will slowly stifle their willingness to participate. Team members will subconsciously assume that your word is golden— whether they agree or not. Because of your position, you must abstain from the early part of a dialogue on issues and share your thoughts near the end of the conversation.

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